Terminology

Term

Brief explanation

Examples

Adversative sentences

They express facts or concepts that are in opposition and are introduced by conjunctions such as dàn(shì) 但(是)/但(是) ‘but’, kěshì 可是/可是‘however’, bùguò 不过/不過 ‘nevertheless’, etc.

Alternative sentences

They express an alternative between two or more options through conjunctions such as huòzhě 或者/或者 ‘or’ in affirmative sentences and háishi 还是/還是 ‘or’ in interrogative sentences.

Aspectual particles

They mark the aspect of an action. These are three particles — le 了1/了1, guo 过/過 e zhe 着/著 — placed after the predicate to indicate whether the action is viewed as completed and delimited (perfective aspect), experienced at least once in the past (experiential aspect), or ongoing/durative (imperfective aspect).

Causative sentences

They express the cause or motivation of what is stated in the main clause. They may be introduced by conjunctions such as yīnwèi 因为/因為 ‘because, since’, or they may remain unmarked, with consecutive conjunctions such as yīncǐ 因此/因此 ‘therefore’ introducing the main clause. They may also appear in correlative constructions such as yīnwèi… suǒyǐ… 因为/因為……所以/所以…… ‘because/since… therefore…’

Causative verbs

These are transitive action verbs that take an object and indicate that someone causes or allows someone else to perform an action. They may express meanings such as forcing, ordering, allowing, permitting, convincing, or inviting. Causative verbs often introduce so-called pivot sentences (see below).

Concessive sentences

They indicate a concession, namely a situation or fact that does not prevent what is expressed in the main clause from happening. The most common structures are introduced by conjunctions and adverbs such as suīrán…dànshì/kěshì… 虽然/雖然……但是/但是 – 可是/可是…… ‘although… however/but…’

Conclusive sentences

They express a logical conclusion or consequence derived from what is stated in the preceding clause. They are introduced by conjunctions such as suǒyǐ 所以/所以 ‘therefore, so’ and/or adverbs such as jiù 就/就 ‘then, immediately, so’.

Conditional sentences

They express the condition that must be fulfilled for the event in the main clause to occur. They are commonly formed through structures such as zhǐyǒu… cái… 只有/只有……才/才…… ‘only if… then…’

Coordinate sentences

These are sentences linked by a coordinate relationship and placed on the same syntactic and semantic level. In Chinese, coordinate sentences include copulative, correlative, adversative, disjunctive, temporal, and conclusive sentences.

See the examples provided under the corresponding sentence types.

Copulative sentences

They express an addition to what is stated in the main clause and are introduced by coordinating conjunctions such as bìng 并/並 ‘moreover, in addition’ and adverbs such as yě 也/也 ‘also’, hái 还/还 ‘also, furthermore’, and yòu 又/又 ‘again’.

Correlative sentences

They are introduced by conjunctions or adverbs that create a parallel relationship between clauses. The most common structures are introduced by adverbs or conjunctions such as yòu… yòu… 又/又……又/又…… ‘both… and…’’, yībiān… yībiān… 一边/一邊……一边/一邊…… ‘while… at the same time…’, bùdàn… érqiě… 不但/不但……而且/而且…… ‘not only… but also…’’, etc.

Degree complement

Placed after the predicate, they indicate the degree to which an action is performed or the intensity of a state expressed by a verb or adjective. They are formed by placing the structural particle de 得/得 (see below) between the predicate and an adjective or an entire clause. It is also defined as descriptive or state complement.

Demonstrative pronouns

They replace a noun referring to someone or something and, at the same time, indicate its position in space or time relative to the speaker or listener. The most common demonstrative pronouns derive from the morphemes zhè 这/這, used for people or things close to the speaker, and nà 那/那, used for people or things farther from the speaker, combined with measure words (see below) or bound morphemes such as er 儿/兒, lǐ 里/裡, etc.

Direction complement

Placed after the predicate, they indicate the direction of the action and situate the utterance in space in relation to the speaker. When a motion verb is followed by the verbs lái 来/來 ’come’ or qù 去/去 ‘go’, indicating movement toward or away from the speaker, the structure is called a simple direction complement. Examples include: shànglái 上来/上來 ‘come up (toward the speaker)’ o chūqù 出去/出去 ‘go out (away from the speaker)’. When a motion verb is followed by another verb providing additional information about the movement, such as jìn 进/進 ‘enter’ or guò 过/過 ‘pass’, together with lái 来/來 or qù 去/去, the structure is called a compound direction complement. For example: dài jìnlái 带进来/帶進來 ‘bring in (toward the speaker)’.

Disjunctive conjunctions

They present an alternative between two or more lexical elements through conjunctions such as háishi 还是/還是 ‘or’ in interrogative sentences and huòzhě 或者/或者 ‘or’ in affirmative sentences.

Duration complement

Placed after the predicate, they express the duration of an action or state, or indicate the amount of time that has passed since an event or action occurred. Since they provide quantitative information about the duration of an action, they belong to the category of quantitative complements together with time-measure complement (see below).

Existential sentences

They express the presence or existence of someone or something in a specific place or time. They are generally formed by a place noun — with or without a localizer (see below) — or a time expression, followed by a verb and the element whose existence or position is being indicated. Common verbs used in these sentences include yǒu 有/有 ‘there is/are’, shì 是/是 ‘be, be located’, and some verbs followed by the aspectual particle zhe 着/著.

Hypothetical sentences

They introduce a hypothesis or assumption on which the consequence expressed in the main clause depends. The most common structures are introduced by conjunctions and adverbs such as rúguǒ… (jiù)… 如果/如果……(就/就)…… ‘if… (then)…’

Indefinite pronouns

They refer to someone or something in a general and non-specific way. Common indefinite pronouns include měi 每/每 ‘every, each’ and gè 各/各 ‘each’. Some interrogative pronouns may also acquire an indefinite meaning in non-interrogative contexts, such as shénme 什么/什麼 ‘something, anything’, shéi 谁/誰 ‘someone, anyone’, nǎ ge 哪个/哪個 ‘someone, any one’, etc.

Interrogative pronouns

They are used to ask questions and replace nouns referring to people, things, places, quantities, or manners. Common interrogative pronouns include shénme 什么/什麼 ‘what?’, shéi 谁/誰 ‘who? whom?’, nǎ 哪/哪 ‘which?’, duōshǎo 多少/多少 ‘how much?, how many?’, etc.

Localizers

They indicate the position of a noun in space or time. They may be monosyllabic, such as shàng 上/上 ‘on, above’, xià 下/下 ‘under, below’, and lǐ 里/裡 ‘inside’, or bisyllabic, formed with suffixes such as biān 边/邊, or prefixes such as yǐ 以/以.

Locative object

This is a place noun functioning as the object and directly following the verb. Chinese motion verbs can be used transitively and can be followed directly by a place without the use of prepositions.

Modal particles

They are placed at the end of the sentence and distinguish declarative, volitive, interrogative, and exclamatory sentences, while also adding different emotional or pragmatic nuances. Common modal particles include a 啊/啊, ba 吧/吧, le 了2/了2, ma 吗/嗎, ne 呢/呢, etc.

Modal verbs

These are verbs placed before the main verb that modify its meaning by expressing willingness, desire, possibility, ability, or necessity. Common modal verbs include yào 要/要 ‘‘must, want to’, xiǎng 想/想 ‘want to, would like to’’, huì 会/會 ‘want to, would like to’’, etc.

Modifiers

This term refers to any element that modifies, determines, describes, or specifies another element that follows it. Elements functioning as nominal modifiers include nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numerals, or demonstratives followed by classifiers, as well as verbs, prepositional phrases, and entire clauses. Elements functioning as verbal modifiers include adverbs, adjectives, and adverbial expressions. The structural particles de 的/的 e de 地/地 (see below) often function respectively as markers of nominal and verbal modification.

Morpheme

The smallest meaningful unit of language, combining form and meaning. Free morphemes are morphemes that can function independently in communication and therefore constitute words. Bound morphemes, on the other hand, must combine with other morphemes (free or bound) in order to perform a communicative function; although they have meaning, they cannot function as independent words.

chī 吃 / 吃 ‘eat‘ (a free morpheme and therefore also a word); mín 民 / 民 (a bound morpheme) which can become a word when combined with another morpheme, as in rénmín 人民 / 人民 ‘people‘.

Negation adverbs

Adverbs such as bù 不/不 ‘no, not’, méi 没/沒 ‘not’ (perfective), and bié 别/别 ‘don’t…!’ (imperative) are used to negate an action or a state.

Nominal predicate

A nominal predicate occurs when a noun functions directly as the predicate without the use of a verb. Unlike Chinese, nouns in English cannot normally function as predicates on their own.

Noun measure words

They are placed immediately after a number, a demonstrative pronoun, or an interrogative pronoun and before a noun, whose unit they identify or classify according to its characteristics. Noun measure words include semantic measure words, chosen according to the inherent properties of the object, and quantifiers (see above). Examples include: běn 本/本, used for bound objects such as books; kuài 块/塊 , used for objects conceived as pieces; jiàn 件/件, used for upper-body clothing, events, official documents, or gifts.

Noun phrase

A noun phrase consists of a noun modified on the left by other lexical elements functioning as nominal modifiers (see above), such as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numerals, or demonstratives followed by measure words, as well as verbs, prepositional phrases, or entire clauses.

Pivot sentences

They are formed with a causative verb (see above) or other types of verbs, such as yuánliàng 原谅/原諒 ‘forgive’, which introduce an object (the “pivot” of the sentence) that simultaneously functions as the subject of the second verb or adjective used predicatively.

Predicative complements

This term refers to complements of degree, direction, result, quantity, duration, and the Chinese rendering of time-measure complement, which are placed after the predicate.

See the examples provided under each corresponding complement.

Prepositional phrase

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition (see below) followed by a lexical element, such as a noun, pronoun, or verb. In Chinese, prepositional phrases generally precede the main verb of the sentence, whereas in English they may also appear after the verb or at the end of the sentence.

Prepositions

They precede a noun, pronoun, or verb and introduce information related to place, time, recipient, company, manner, topic, cause, exclusion, comparison, or agent, and may also be used to anticipate the object before the verb. Many Chinese prepositions historically derive from transitive verbs, and some still retain verbal uses today; therefore, it is the position within the sentence that determines their function (e.g. zài 在/在 can function as a preposition meaning ‘in, at’, or as a verb meaning ‘to stay, to be located’). A preposition together with the following lexical element forms a prepositional phrase (see above).

Quantifiers

They are a type of noun measure words placed immediately after a number, a demonstrative pronoun, or an interrogative pronoun and before a noun, in order to indicate or quantify its unit. Unlike other classifiers, quantifiers do not depend on the inherent characteristics of the object, but express quantity through units of measurement, groups, parts, or indefinite quantities. Common quantifiers include jīn 斤/斤 ‘half a kilogram’, bāo 包/包 ‘pack’, shuāng 双/雙 ‘pair’, xiē 些/些 (used to express an indefinite plural quantity together with demonstrative and interrogative pronouns), etc.

Quantitative complements

This term refers to complements that provide information about the quantity of an action in terms of duration, quantity, or frequency. These include duration complement (see above), quantity complement, and the Chinese rendering of time-measure complement (see below).

See the examples provided under each corresponding complement.

Result complement

Placed after the predicate, they indicate the result of a completed action. They are formed by two lexical elements functioning together as a single verb; the second element, which may be a verb or an adjective, is called the result complement. Common result complements include: cuò 错/錯 ‘wrong, indicating that the action ended incorrectly; chéng 成/成 ‘become’, indicating the result of a transformation; dào 到/到 ‘reach’, indicating the attainment of a point or level, etc. In English, result complements may sometimes be translated using adverbs or adverbial expressions (e.g. xiě cuò 写错/寫錯 ‘write incorrectly’); , while in other cases a single verb may express the overall meaning (e.g. zhǎo dào 找到/找到 ‘find’).

Separable verbs

These are disyllabic verbs whose two characters can be separated within the sentence. Usually, the first lexical element is a verb indicating the action, while the second is a noun representing the generic object of that action.

Serial verb constructions

These consist of two (or more rarely more than two) verbs or verb phrases occurring in the same sentence and linked by a relation of sequence, purpose, or means. Each verb may be accompanied by its own object, including a locative object (see above), and all verbs share the same subject.

Structural particles

They connect different elements within the sentence and specify their grammatical function. The main structural particles include de 的/的, which marks nominal modification, de 地/地, which marks verbal modification, and de 得/得, which marks certain verbal complements such as degree complement (see above).

Subordinate clauses

These are sentences that depend on the main clause both syntactically and semantically. In Chinese, subordinate sentences include hypothetical, concessive, causal, conditional (see above), and final sentences.

See the examples provided under the corresponding sentence types.

Temporal sentences

They place two or more actions or events in sequence and are introduced by adverbs or conjunctions such as yī… jiù… 一/一……就/就…… ‘as soon as… immediately…’, xiān… ránhòu/zài… 先/先……然后/然後 – 再/再…… ‘first… then…’, etc.

Time-measure complement

Placed after the predicate, they indicate how many times an action occurs through the use of verb measure words (see below). Since they provide quantitative information about the occurrence of an action, they belong to the category of quantitative complements together with duration and quantity complements.

Verb measure words

They divide or quantify the action or state expressed by the verb by specifying its frequency or delimitative aspect. They are placed immediately after the verb and are preceded by a numeral. Examples include: cì 次/次 ‘time, occurrence’, yíxià(r) 一下(儿)/一下(兒) ‘a little, for a moment’’, yī yǎn 一眼/一眼 ‘a glance’, etc.

Verb phrase

A verb phrase consists of a verb, often accompanied by an object or a predicative complement (see above). Verbal modifiers (see above) preceding the verb, such as adverbs, adjectives, or adverbial expressions, are also considered part of the verb phrase.

Verbal predicate

A verbal predicate occurs when the predicate of the sentence is formed by a verb, as in English.